View source for Saffron

{{Taxobox
| name               = Saffron crocus
| image              = Saffran crocus sativus moist.jpg
| image_width        = 250px
| image_caption      = A saffron crocus flower with red stigma.
| regnum             = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio            = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis            = [[Liliopsida]]
| ordo               = [[Asparagales]]
| familia            = [[Iridaceae]]
| subfamilia         = [[Crocoideae]]
| genus              = ''[[Crocus]]''
| species            = '''''C. sativus'''''
| binomial           = ''Crocus sativus''
| binomial_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]]
}}
'''Saffron''' ({{Pron-en|ˈsæfrən/, /ˈsæfrɒn}}) is a [[spice]] made from the [[gynoecium|stigma]] of the [[flower]] of the saffron plant. The spice is used in cooking as a [[seasoning]] and as a [[food colouring]]. It is native to [[Southwest Asia]].<ref name = "Hill_272"/><ref name="Grigg_287">{{harvnb|Grigg|1974|p=287}}</ref> It is the world's most [[Expense|expensive]] spice, and has been for a long time.<ref name = "Hill_272"/><ref name="Rau_53">{{harvnb|Rau|1969|p=53}}</ref>

Saffron has a bitter [[taste]] and smells like [[hay]]. This [[Odor|smell]] is caused by the [[chemical]]s [[picrocrocin]] and [[safranal]].<ref name="McGee_422">{{harvnb|McGee|2004|p=422}}</ref><ref name = "Katzer_2001"/> Saffron also contains a [[dye]], [[crocin]], that gives food a rich golden colour. Saffron is a part of many foods from around the world, and is also used in [[medicine]].

The word ''saffron'' comes from the [[12th century]] [[Old French]] word ''{{lang|fr|safran}}'', which comes from the [[Latin]] word ''{{lang|la|safranum}}''. ''{{lang|la|Safranum}}'' is also related to the [[Italian language|Italian]] ''{{lang|it|zafferano}}'' and [[Spanish language|Spanish]] ''{{lang|es|azafrán}}''.<ref name="Harper_2001">{{harvnb|Harper|2001}}</ref> ''Safranum'' comes from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] word ''{{transl|ar|DIN||aṣfar}}''  which means "[[yellow]]".<ref name="Katzer_2001" /><ref>{{cite book| last = Kumar| first = Vijaya| title = The Secret Benefits of Spices and Condiments| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=AaTpWEIlgNwC| accessdate = 2007-12-01| year = 2006| publisher = Sterling| isbn = 978-1-84557-585-4| page = 103 }}</ref>

== Biology ==
{| cellpadding="4" border="0" style="float:left; margin:0 1em 1em 0; width:125px; border:1px #bbb solid; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:85%;"
|- style="background:#90ee90;"
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"| '''Saffron crocus morphology'''
|-  style="background:#fff; color:#111; text-align:center;"
| colspan="2" | [[File:Crocus sativus - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-194.jpg|center|200px|''Crocus sativus'' (saffron crocus) botanical illustration from ''Kohler's Medicinal Plants'']]
|- style="background:#efe;"
| style="width:10px; height:5px; background:#f3df5a;" | || &nbsp;→&nbsp; [[Stamen]]s (male organs).
|- style="background:#efe;"
| style="width:10px; height:10px; background:#f7c9af;" | || &nbsp;→&nbsp; Corolla (whorl of [[petal]]s).
|- style="background:#efe;"
| style="width:10px; height:10px; background:#bd9655;" | || &nbsp;→&nbsp; [[Corm]] (propagation organ).
|}

The [[culture|cultivated]] saffron (saffron crocus ''C. sativus'') flowers in the autumn and comes up every year. It is a [[perennial plant]]. It does not grow wild, and is  a [[polyploidy|triploid]] form of the eastern [[Mediterranean]] plant called ''[[Crocus cartwrightianus]]''.<ref name = "Deo_1"/> It is thought that ''C. cartwrightianus'' came from [[Crete]].<ref name = "Katzer_2001"/> The saffron crocus resulted when ''C. cartwrightianus'' was subjected to a lot of [[artificial selection]] by growers who wanted plants with longer stigmas. It can not [[reproduction|reproduce]] because the saffron crocus's purple flowers do not produce useful seeds. This means that [[reproduction]] needs human help. The [[corm]]s (underground bulb-like [[starch]]-storing organs) must be dug up, broken apart, and planted again. A corm lives for only one season. It is reproduced by splitting into up to ten "cormlets" that will grow into new plants.<ref name = "Deo_1"/> The corms are small brown balls up to {{convert|4.5|cm|in}} in diameter and are covered in thick parallel fibres.

After a period in summer known as "[[estivation|aestivation]]", some narrow green leaves come up from the ground. These can grow to up to {{convert|40|cm|in|abbr=on}} in length. The number of leaves is between five and eleven. In [[autumn]], [[purple]] buds appear. In October, after most other flowering plants have released their seeds, the saffron grows its brightly-coloured flowers, which are coloured from light to dark [[purple]].<ref name="Willard_3">{{harvnb|Willard|2001|p=3}}</ref> At the time of flowering, the plant is usually less than {{convert|30|cm|in|abbr=on}} in height.<ref name="DPIWE_2005">{{harvnb|DPIWE|2005}}.</ref> Inside each flower are three [[prong]]s, called the "style". Each prong has a [[crimson]] "stigma" of between 25 and 30 [[metre|mm]] in length<ref name = "Deo_1"/> at the end of it.

== Cultivation ==
{| cellpadding="1" border="0" style="float:left; margin:0 1em 1em 0; width:213px; border:1px #bbb solid; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:85%;"
|-  style="text-align:center; background:#90ee90;"
| colspan="2" | '''Saffron crocus flower yields<sup>[*]</sup> of smaller producers'''
|-  style="text-align:center; background:#efe;"
| Country || Yield ([[kilogram|kg]]/[[hectare|ha]])
|-  style="text-align:center; background:#fff;"
|[[Spain]]||6–29
|-  style="text-align:center; background:#fff;"
|[[Italy]]||10–16
|-  style="text-align:center; background:#fff;"
|[[Greece]]||4–7
|-  style="text-align:center; background:#fff;"
|[[India]]||2–7
|-  style="text-align:center; background:#fff;"
|[[Morocco]]||2.0–2.5
|-  style="text-align:center; background:#efe;"
| colspan="2" | ''Source: {{harvnb|Deo|2003|p=3}}''
|-  style="text-align:center; background:#efe;"
| colspan="2" | [*]–Yields specify flower weight, not final dry saffron weight.
|}
The saffron crocus grows best in climates like that of the Mediterranean [[Maquis shrubland|maquis]] or the [[North America]]n [[chaparral]], where hot, dry summer winds blow across the land. However, saffron can live through temperatures as cold as {{convert|-10|C|F|1}}, and short periods of snow.<ref name="Deo_1">{{harvnb|Deo|2003|p= 1}}</ref><ref name="Willard_2-3">{{harvnb|Willard|2001|pp= 2–3}}</ref> Saffron needs no extra water if it grows in a wet place like [[Kashmir]], where there is usually 1000–1500&nbsp;mm of rain each year. It is also important for the rain to fall at the right time of year. There should be a lot of rain in the [[Spring (season)|spring]] and little in the [[summer]]. Rainfall just before flowering also makes the plant give more saffron. Rainy or cold weather during flowering can cause disease, so the plant gives less saffron. Other things that can make the plant give less saffron are: the weather being damp or hot for a long time;<ref name="Deo_2">{{Harvnb |Deo|2003|p=2}}</ref> [[Rabbit|rabbits]], rats, and birds, digging in the ground near the plant; [[parasite]]s such as the [[roundworm]]; [[fungus]] and corm rot.<ref name = "Deo_3"/> Saffron plants grow best in strong and direct sunlight. Planting is best done in fields that slope towards the sunlight (i.e. south-sloping in the [[Northern Hemisphere]]), giving the crocuses' more sunlight. In the [[Northern Hemisphere]], planting is mostly done in June, with corms planted some 7–15&nbsp;cm deep.

Growers have found that planting corms {{convert|15|cm|in}} deep and in rows spaced 2–3&nbsp;cm apart makes more threads, whereas planting depths of 8–10&nbsp;cm makes more flowers and corms.<ref name="deo2">{{Harvnb |Deo|2003| p = 2}}.</ref> Saffron crocuses grow best in crumbly, moist and well-drained [[clay]] soils with high [[Organic matter|organic]] content. They are often planted in raised beds, to help with drainage. Farmers often use 20–30&nbsp;tonnes of [[manure]] per [[hectare]] on the plants before plating the corms<ref name = "Deo_3"/> The buds do not start to grow until early autumn, then in the middle of autumn the plants begin to flower. Picking the flowers must be done quickly: they flower at dawn, but curl up and die during the day.<ref name = "Willard_3-4">{{Harvnb |Willard|2001|pp=3–4}}.</ref> The flowers of the saffron crocuses only last for one or two weeks.<ref name="Willard_4">{{harvnb|Willard|2001|p=4}}</ref> From 150 flowers, the farmer can get about 1&nbsp;[[gram|g]] of dry saffron threads. To produce 12&nbsp;g of dried saffron (72&nbsp;g freshly harvested) would take about 1&nbsp;kg of flowers (1&nbsp;lb for 0.2&nbsp;oz of dried saffron). It can be worked out from this that one freshly picked flower makes 0.03&nbsp;g of fresh saffron, or 0.007&nbsp;g of dried saffron.<ref name="Deo_3">{{harvnb|Deo|2003|p=3}}</ref>

== History ==
{{main|History of Saffron cultivation}}
[[File:Cueilleuse_de_safran,_fresque,_Akrotiri,_Grèce.jpg|thumb|left|A detail of the "Saffron Gatherers" fresco from the "Xeste 3" building. The fresco is one of many dealing with saffron that were found at the Bronze Age settlement of Akrotiri, [[Santorini]].]]
The history of saffron growing reaches back more than 3,000 years.<ref name="deo1">{{harvnb|Deo|2003|p=1}}</ref> The wild plant from which the saffron crocus came was called ''Crocus cartwrightianus''. Humans began choosing wild plants that had long "stigmas". Gradually, a form of ''C. cartwrightianus'', ''C. sativus'', came into being in the late [[Bronze Age]] [[Crete]].<ref name="Goyns_1">{{harvnb|Goyns|1999|p=1}}</ref> The first document to mention saffron is a [[7th century]] [[Before Christ|BC]] [[Assyria]]n book about [[botany]] which was written in the time of [[Ashurbanipal]]. There is evidence for the use of saffron in the treatment of about 90 [[Disease|illnesses]] during the past 4,000 years.<ref name="Honan_2004">{{harvnb|Honan|2004}}.</ref>
=== Mediterranean ===
The [[Minoan civilization|Minoans]] had pictures of saffron in their [[palace]]s as long ago as 1500–1600&nbsp;BC, showing how it could be used as a [[medicine]].<ref name="honan2004">{{Harvnb |Honan|2004}}.</ref><ref name="Ferrence">{{harvnb|Ferrence|2004|p=1}}</ref> Later, [[Greek mythology|Greek legends]] told of sea voyages to [[Cilicia]], where adventurers hoped to find the world's most valuable saffron.<ref name="willard2">{{harvnb|Willard|2001|pp=2–3}}</ref> Another legend tells how someone named Crocus was bewitched and transformed into the original saffron crocus.<ref name="Willard_2">{{Harvnb | Willard |2001|p=2}}.</ref> Ancient Mediterranean peoples–including [[Perfumer|perfumers]] in [[Egypt]], [[physician]]<nowiki/>s in [[Gaza]], townspeople in [[Rhodes]],<ref name="Willard_58">{{harvnb|Willard|2001|p= 58}}</ref> and the Greek ''[[hetaerae]]'' [[courtesan]]s–used saffron in their [[perfume]]s, ointments,<ref name="Willard_41">{{harvnb|Willard|2001|p=41}}</ref> [[potpourris]], [[mascara]]s, [[Sacrifice|divine offerings]], and medical treatments.<ref name = "Willard_41"/>
[[File:Man gathering saffron Knossos Crete crocus sativus fresco.jpg|thumb|right|This ancient [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]] fresco from [[Knossos]], [[Crete]] shows a monkey (stooped blue figure) gathering the saffron harvest.]]

In late [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic]] Egypt, [[Cleopatra VII of Egypt|Cleopatra]] used saffron in her baths to make her feel good.<ref name="Willard_55">{{harvnb|Willard|2001|p = 55}}</ref> Egyptian healers used saffron as a treatment for all types of [[gastrointestinal system|gastrointestinal]] ailments.<ref name="Willard_34-35">{{harvnb|Willard|2001|pp=34–35}}</ref> Saffron was also used as a [[fabric]] [[dye]] in [[Levant]] cities.<ref name="Willard_59">{{Harvnb |Willard|2001|p=59}}.</ref> [[Aulus Cornelius Celsus]] prescribes saffron in medicines for [[Wound|wounds]], [[cough]], [[colic]], and [[scabies]], and in the [[mithridatium]].<ref>Celsus, de Medicina, ca. 30&nbsp;AD, transl. Loeb Classical Library Edition, 1935 [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Celsus/home.html]</ref>  [[Roman]] [[Colonization|colonists]] took their saffron with them when they settled in southern [[Gaul]], where it was extensively cultivated until Rome's fall. Competing theories say that saffron only returned to France with [[8th century]] AD [[Moors]] or with the [[Avignon]] papacy in the [[14th century]] AD.<ref name="Willard_63">{{Harvnb |Willard|2001|p= 63}}.</ref>

=== Asia ===
[[File:Gomateswara.jpg|thumb|left|The 17.8 [[Metre|m]] [[monolith]] of [[Jainism|Jain]] [[Tirthankara]] [[Bhagavan]] [[Gomateshwara]] [[Bahubali]], which was carved between 978–993&nbsp;AD and is in [[Shravanabelagola]], [[India]]. Every 12 years it is smeared with saffron by thousands of believers as part of the [[Mahamastakabhisheka]] festival.]]

Paints made from saffron were being used for drawing 50,000 years ago. These have been found in the country that is today called [[Iraq]].<ref name="willard22">{{harvnb|Willard|2001|p=2}}</ref><ref name = "Humphries_20">{{Harvnb |Humphries|1998|p = 20}}.</ref> Later, the [[Sumerians]] used wild-growing saffron in their medicines and magical potions.<ref name="Willard_12">{{harvnb|Willard|2001|p=12}}</ref> Traders carried saffron for long distances before the [[2nd millennium BC]]. Ancient [[Persians]] were growing their own type of saffron (''Crocus sativus'' 'Hausknechtii') in [[Derbena]], [[Isfahan (city)|Isfahan]], and [[Khorasan]] by the 10th century BC. Sometimes saffron threads were woven into textiles,.<ref name="willard21">{{Harvnb |Willard|2001|p= 2}}</ref> They were given as offerings to the gods and used in dyes, perfumes, medicines, and [[body washes]].<ref name="Willard_17-18">{{harvnb|Willard|2001|pp=17–18}}</ref> Saffron threads were also scattered across beds and mixed into hot tea as a way of curing [[melancholy|sad feelings]]. Other people were afraid that the Persians would use saffron as a drug and [[aphrodisiac]].<ref name="willard41">{{harvnb|Willard|2001|p= 41}}</ref> During his Asian campaigns, [[Alexander the Great]] used Persian saffron in his tea, rice, and baths to help heal his battle wounds. Alexander's troops copied their leader's actions and brought the habit of saffron-bathing back to [[Greece]].<ref name="Willard_54-55">{{harvnb|Willard|2001|pp=54–55}}</ref>

No one knows how saffron arrived in [[South Asia]]. Traditional [[Kashmir]]i and [[China|Chinese]] accounts date its arrival anywhere between 900–2500 years ago.<ref name = "Lak_1998b">{{Harvnb |Lak| 1998b}}.</ref><ref name="Fotedar_128">{{harvnb|Fotedar|1998–1999|p= 128}}</ref> Historians studying ancient Persian records date the arrival to sometime before 500&nbsp;BC,<ref name="mcgee422">{{Harvnb |McGee|2004|p= 422}}.</ref> saying it was either Persian transplantation of saffron corms to stock new gardens and parks<ref name="Dalby_2003_256">{{harvnb|Dalby|2003|p= 256}}</ref> or a Persian invasion and colonization of [[Kashmir]]. [[Phoenicia]]ns sold Kashmiri saffron as a dye and a treatment for [[melancholy]].<ref name="Willard_41"/> Saffron use in foods and dyes spread throughout South Asia. [[Buddhist]] monks in [[India]] started wearing saffron-coloured robes after the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha Siddhartha Gautama]]'s death.<ref name = "Tarvand_2005"/> However, the robes were not dyed with costly saffron but [[turmeric]], a less expensive dye, or [[jackfruit]].<ref>Finlay, Victoria. "Color; A Natural History of the Palette", page 224. Random House 2002.</ref>

Some historians believe that saffron first came to China with [[Mongol Empire|Mongol]] invaders by way of Persia.<ref name = "Fletcher_2005_11">{{harvnb |Fletcher|2005| p = 11}}.</ref> Saffron is mentioned in ancient Chinese medical texts, including the forty-volume ''[[Shennong Bencaojing]]'' [[pharmacopoeia]], dating from 200–300&nbsp;BC. Traditionally attributed to the legendary ''Yan'' ("Fire") Emperor [[Shennong]], it documents 252 medical treatments for various disorders.<ref name="Tarvand_2005">{{harvnb|Tarvand| 2005}}</ref><ref name = "Hayes_6">{{Harvnb |Hayes|2001| p = 6}}.</ref><ref name="SNL_2005">{{harvnb|Shen-Nong Limited| 2005}}</ref> Yet around the 3rd century AD  [[Wan Zhen]], a Chinese medical expert, reported that "[t]he habitat of saffron is in Kashmir, where people grow it principally to offer it to the Buddha." Wan also reflected on how saffron was used in his time: "The [saffron crocus] flower withers after a few days, and then the saffron is obtained. It is valued for its uniform yellow colour. It can be used to aromatise [[wine]]."

=== Europe ===
[[File:Thomas Becket Murder.JPG|thumb|right|Medieval European [[illuminated manuscript]]s, such as this 13th century picture of [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] [[Thomas Becket]]'s murder, often used saffron dyes to provide colors of [[yellow]] and [[orange (color)|orange]].]]

In [[Europe]], saffron cultivation declined steeply following the [[Roman Empire]]'s fall. Saffron was reintroduced when the Islamic civilization "[[Al-Andalus]]" spread to [[Al-Andalus|Spain]], France, and Italy.<ref name="Willard_70">{{harvnb|Willard|2001|p=70}}</ref> During the 14th century [[Black Death]], there was a huge increase in demand for saffron-based medicine. Much saffron had to be imported by [[Venetian]] and [[Genoa|Genoan]] ships from southern and Mediterranean lands<ref name = "Willard_99"/> such as [[Rhodes]]. The theft of one such shipment by noblemen started the 14 week long "Saffron War".<ref name="Willard_99">{{harvnb|Willard|2001|p=99}}</ref> The conflict and resulting fear of rampant saffron piracy spurred significant saffron cultivation in [[Basel]], which grew prosperous.<ref name="Willard_101">{{harvnb|Willard|2001|p=101}}</ref> Cultivation and trade then spread to [[Nuremberg]], where epidemic levels of saffron [[Adulterant|adulteration]] brought on the ''Safranschou'' code. Under this law saffron adulterators were fined, imprisoned, and executed.<ref name="Willard_103-104">{{harvnb|Willard|2001|pp=103–104}}</ref> Saffron cultivation spread throughout England, especially [[Norfolk]] and [[Suffolk]]. The Essex town of [[Saffron Walden]], named for its new specialty crop, became England's main saffron growing and trading center. More exotic spices such as [[chocolate]], [[coffee]], [[tea]], and [[vanilla]] from newly contacted Eastern and overseas countries caused European cultivation and usage of saffron to decline.<ref name="Willard_117">{{harvnb|Willard|2001|p=117}}</ref><ref name="Willard_132-133">{{harvnb|Willard|2001|pp=132–133}}</ref> Only in southern France, Italy, and Spain, did significant cultivation continue.<ref name="Willard_133">{{harvnb|Willard|2001|p=133}}</ref>

Europeans brought saffron to the [[Americas]] when immigrant members of the [[Schwenkfelder Church]] left Europe with a trunk containing saffron corms; indeed, many Schwenkfelders had widely grown saffron in Europe.<ref name = "Willard_143"/> By 1730, the [[Pennsylvania Dutch]] were growing saffron throughout eastern [[Pennsylvania]]. Spanish colonies in the [[Caribbean]] bought large amounts of this new American saffron, and high demand ensured that saffron's list price on the [[Philadelphia]] commodities exchange was set equal to that of [[gold]].<ref name="Willard_138">{{harvnb|Willard|2001|p=138}}</ref> The trade with the Caribbean later collapsed in the aftermath of the [[War of 1812]], when many saffron-transporting merchant vessels were destroyed.<ref name="Willard_138-139">{{harvnb|Willard|2001|pp=138–139}}</ref> Yet the [[Pennsylvania Dutch]] continued to grow saffron for local trade and use in their [[Cake|cakes]], [[Noodle|noodles]], and [[chicken]] or [[trout]] dishes.<ref name="Willard_142-146">{{harvnb|Willard|2001|pp=142–146}}</ref> American saffron cultivation survived into modern times mainly in [[Lancaster County, Pennsylvania]].<ref name = "Willard_143"/>

== Trade and use ==
[[File:ValencianPaella.jpg|thumb|left|Saffron is one of the three essential ingredients in the [[cuisine of Spain|Spanish]] ''[[paella|paella valenciana]]'', and is responsible for its characteristic brilliant yellow colouring.]]

Saffron's aroma is often described to be something like metallic [[honey]] with [[grass]]y or [[hay]]-like notes. Its taste has also been noted as hay-like and somewhat bitter. Saffron gives a light yellow-orange colouring to foods. Saffron is widely used in [[Cuisine of Iran|Iranian]] ([[Persian cuisine|Persian]]), [[Arab cuisine|Arab]], Central [[Asian cuisine|Asian]], [[European cuisine|European]], [[Indian cuisine|Indian]],[[Turkish cuisine|Turkish]], [[Cuisine of Morocco|Moroccan]] and [[Cornwall|Cornish]] cuisines. [[Confectionery|Confectioneries]] and [[Liquor|liquors]]  often include saffron. Common saffron substitutes include [[safflower]] (''Carthamus tinctorius'', which is often sold as "Portuguese saffron" or "assafroa") and [[turmeric]] (''Curcuma longa''). Saffron has been used as a medicine for a long time. Modern medicine has also discovered it as having [[anticarcinogen]]ic (cancer-suppressing),<ref name = "Abdullaev_1"/> anti-mutagenic ([[mutation]]-preventing), [[Immunology|immunomodulating]], and [[antioxidant]]-like properties.<ref name="Abdullaev_1">{{harvnb|Abdullaev|2002|p=1}}</ref><ref name="Assimopoulou_2005">{{harvnb|Assimopoulou|2005|p=1}}</ref><ref name="Chang">{{harvnb|Chang|Kuo|Wang|1964|p=1}}</ref> Saffron has also been used as a fabric [[dye]], particularly in [[China]] and [[India]], and in perfumery.
{| cellpadding="4" border="0" style="float:right; margin:0 0 1em 1em; width:300px; border:1px #bbb solid; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:85%;"
|- style="background:#ff8888;"
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"| '''World saffron cultivation patterns'''
|-  style="background:#fff; color:#111; text-align:center;"
| colspan="2" | [[File:Saffron crocus sativus modern world production.png|center|300px|A map showing the primary saffron-producing nations.]]<br/><center>A map showing the primary saffron-producing nations.</center>
|- style="background:#fee;"
| style="width:10px; height:10px; background:maroon;"| || &nbsp;–&nbsp; Major growing regions.
|- style="background:#fee;"
| style="width:10px; height:5px; background:#f00;"| || &nbsp;–&nbsp; Major producing nations.
|- style="background:#fee;"
| style="width:10px; height:10px; background:#f55;"| || &nbsp;–&nbsp; Minor growing regions.
|- style="background:#fee;"
| style="width:10px; height:10px; background:#ffaeae;" | || &nbsp;–&nbsp; Minor producing nations.
|- style="background:#fee;"
| style="width:10px; height:10px; background:#8080ff;" | || &nbsp;–&nbsp; Major trading centres (current).
|- style="background:#fee;"
| style="width:10px; height:10px; background:#97cbff;" | || &nbsp;–&nbsp; Major trading centres (historical).
|}

Most saffron is grown in a belt of land ranging from the [[Mediterranean]] in the west to [[Kashmir]] in the east. Around 300&nbsp;tonnes of saffron are produced worldwide each year.<ref name="Katzer_2001">{{harvnb|Katzer|2001}}</ref> [[Iran]] ranks first in the world production of saffron, with more than 94 percent of the world yield.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/home/en/|title=Home|website=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations}}</ref> Iran's annual saffron production is expected to hit 300 tons by the end of the nation's Fourth Five-Year Socioeconomic Development Plan in 2009. Other minor producers of saffron are [[Spain]], [[India]], [[Greece]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Morocco]], and [[Italy]]. A pound of dry saffron (0.45&nbsp;kg) requires 50,000–75,000 flowers. These flowers would need about a football field's area of cultivation.<ref name="Hill_273">{{harvnb|Hill|2004|p=273}}</ref><ref name="Rau_35">{{harvnb|Rau|1969|p=35}}</ref> Some forty hours of labour are needed to pick 150,000 flowers.<ref name="Lak_1998">{{harvnb|Lak|1998}}.</ref> Upon extraction, stigmas are dried quickly and (preferably) sealed in airtight containers.<ref name="Goyns_8">{{harvnb|Goyns|1999|p=8}}</ref> Saffron prices range from US$500/pound to US$5,000/pound (US$1100–US$11,000 per kilogram). In Western countries, the average retail price is $1,000/£500/€700 per pound (US$2200/£1100/€1550 per kilogram).<ref name="Hill_272">{{harvnb|Hill|2004|p=272}}</ref> A pound is between 70,000 and 200,000 threads. Vivid crimson colouring, slight moistness, elasticity, recent harvest date, and lack of broken-off thread debris are all traits of fresh saffron.
{{clear}}

== Cultivars ==
[[File:Iran saffron threads.jpg|thumb|left|Saffron threads (red-coloured stigmas) mixed with styles (yellow) from Iran.]]

Several saffron [[cultivar]]s are grown worldwide. Spain's varieties, including the tradenames 'Spanish Superior' and 'Creme', are generally mellower in colour, flavour, and aroma. Italian varieties are slightly more potent than Spanish, while the most intense varieties tend to be [[Iran]]ian in origin. India has banned the export of high-grade saffron abroad. Aside from these, various "boutique" crops are available from New Zealand, France, Switzerland, England, the United States, and other countries, some [[organically grown]]. In the U.S., Pennsylvania Dutch saffron—known for its earthy notes—is marketed in small quantities.<ref name="Willard_143">{{harvnb|Willard|2001|p=143}}</ref><ref name="Willard_201">{{harvnb|Willard|2001|p=201}}</ref>

[[File:Red-crocus-thread-greek-v2.jpg|thumb|right|Close-up of a single crocus thread (the dried stigma). Actual length is about {{convert|20|mm|in|abbr=on}}.]]

Consumers regard certain cultivars as "premium" quality. The "Aquila" saffron (''zafferano dell'Aquila'')—defined by high [[safranal]] and [[crocin]] content, shape, unusually pungent aroma, and intense colour—is grown exclusively on eight hectares in the Navelli Valley of Italy's [[Abruzzo]] region, near [[L'Aquila]]. It was first introduced to Italy by a Dominican monk from [[Spanish Inquisition|Inquisition-era]] Spain. In Italy the biggest saffron cultivation, for quality and quantity, is in San Gavino Monreale, [[Sardinia]]. There, saffron is grown on 40&nbsp;hectares (60% of Italian production); it also has very high crocin, picrocrocin, and safranal content. Another is the Kashmiri "Mongra" or "Lacha" saffron (''Crocus sativus'' 'Cashmirianus'), which is among the most difficult for consumers to obtain. Repeated droughts, blights, and crop failures in Kashmir, combined with an Indian export ban, contribute to its high prices. Kashmiri saffron is recognisable by its extremely dark maroon-purple hue, among the world's darkest, which suggests the saffron's strong flavour, aroma, and colourative effect.

== Grade ==

{| cellpadding="1" border="0" style="float:left; margin:0 1em 1em 0; width:208px; border:1px #bbb solid; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:85%;"
|-  style="text-align:center; background:#cdc0b0;"
! colspan="2" | Minimum saffron colour<br/> grading standards ([[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] 3632)
|-  style="text-align:center; background:#eedfcc;"
| ISO Grade<br/>(category) || Crocin-specific<br/>[[absorbance]] (<math>A_\lambda</math>) score<br/>(at λ=440 [[nanometer|nm]])
|-  style="text-align:center; background:#fff;"
| I   || > 190
|-  style="text-align:center; background:#fff;"
| II  || 150–190
|-  style="text-align:center; background:#fff;"
| III || 110–150
|-  style="text-align:center; background:#fff;"
| IV  || 80–110
|-  style="text-align:center; background:#eedfcc;"
| colspan="2"| ''Source: {{harvnb|Tarvand|2005b}}''
|}

Saffron types are graded by [[quality]] according to laboratory measurements of such characteristics as [[crocin]] (colour), [[picrocrocin]] (taste), and safranal (fragrance) content. Other metrics include floral waste content (i.e. the saffron spice sample's non-stigma floral content) and measurements of other extraneous matter such as inorganic material ("ash"). A uniform set of international standards in saffron grading was established by the [[International Organization for Standardization]], which is an international federation of national standards bodies. ISO 3632 deals exclusively with saffron. It establishes four empirical grades of colour intensity: IV (poorest), III, II, and I (finest quality). Saffron samples are then assigned to one of these grades by gauging the spice's crocin content, which is revealed by measurements of crocin-specific spectroscopic [[absorbance]]. Absorbance is defined as <math>A_\lambda = -\log(I/I_0)</math>, with <math>A_\lambda</math> as absorbance ([[Beer-Lambert law]]). It is a measure of a given substance's transparency (<math>I/I_0</math>, the ratio of light intensity passing through sample to that of the incident light) to a given wavelength of light.

{| cellpadding="1" border="0" style="float:right; margin:0 0 1em 1em; width:160px; border:1px #bbb solid; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:85%;"
|-  style="text-align:center; background:#cdc0b0;"
! colspan="2"  |  Spanish federal saffron<br/>grading standards
|-  style="text-align:center; background:#eedfcc;"
| Grade        || [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] score
|-  style="text-align:center; background:#fff;"
|''Coupe''     || > 190
|-  style="text-align:center; background:#fff;"
|''La Mancha'' || 180–190
|-  style="text-align:center; background:#fff;"
|''Río''       || 150–180
|-  style="text-align:center; background:#fff;"
|''Standard''  || 145–150
|-  style="text-align:center; background:#fff;"
|''Sierra''    || < 110
|-  style="text-align:center; background:#eedfcc;"
| colspan="2"| ''Source: {{harvnb|Tarvand|2005b}}''
|}

For saffron, absorbance is determined for the crocin-specific [[photon]] [[wavelength]] of 440 [[nanometer|nm]] in a given dry sample of spice.<ref name = "Tarvand_2005b"/> Higher absorbances at this wavelength imply greater crocin concentration, and thus a greater colour intensity. These data are measured through [[spectrophotometry]] reports at certified testing laboratories worldwide. These colour grades proceed from grades with absorbances lower than 80 (for all category IV saffron) up to 190 or greater (for category I). The world's finest samples (the selected most red-maroon tips of stigmas picked from the finest flowers) receive absorbance scores in excess of 250. Market prices for saffron types follow directly from these ISO scores.<ref name="Tarvand_2005b">{{harvnb|Tarvand|2005b}}</ref> However, many growers, traders, and consumers reject such lab test numbers. They prefer a more holistic method of sampling batches of thread for taste, aroma, pliability, and other traits in a fashion similar to that practiced by practised wine tasters.<ref name="Hill_274">{{harvnb|Hill|2004|p=274}}</ref>

Despite such attempts at quality control and standardisation, an extensive history of saffron adulteration–particularly among the cheapest grades–continues into modern times. Adulteration was first documented in Europe's Middle Ages, when those found selling adulterated saffron were executed under the ''Safranschou'' code.<ref name="Willard_102-104">{{harvnb|Willard|2001|pp=102–104}}</ref> Typical methods include mixing in other substances like [[beet]], [[pomegranate]] fibers, red-dyed [[silk]] fibers, or the saffron crocus's tasteless and odorless yellow stamens. Other methods included dousing saffron fibers with viscid substances like [[honey]] or [[vegetable oil]]. Powdered saffron is more prone to adulteration with turmeric, [[paprika]], and other powders. Adulteration can also consist of selling mislabeled mixes of different saffron grades.<ref name="tarvand2005">{{harvnb|Tarvand|2005}}</ref> Thus, in India, high-grade Kashmiri saffron is often sold mixed with cheaper Iranian imports. These mixes are  marketed as pure Kashmiri saffron, a development that has cost Kashmiri growers much of their income.<ref name="ABC">{{harvnb|Australian Broadcasting Corporation|2003}}</ref><ref name="Hussain">{{harvnb|Hussain|2005}}</ref>

== Gallery ==
<gallery>
|Natural Saffron of [[Afghanistan]]
File:Crocus sativus1.jpg|Saffron crocuses flowering in a garden in [[Osaka Prefecture]] (大阪府), [[Kansai]], [[Honshū]], [[Japan]]
File:Crocus sativus sahuran.jpg|A saffron crocus flower
</gallery>

== Notes ==
{{reflist|2}}

== References ==
{{Refbegin|2}}
* {{Harvard reference
| Author      = Australian Broadcasting Corporation
| Surname1    = Australian Broadcasting Corporation
| Year        = 2003
| Title       = Kashmiri saffron producers see red over Iranian imports
| Journal     = [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]]
| URL         = http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200311/s982047.htm
| accessdate = [[January 10]], [[2006]]
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1    = Abdullaev
| Given1      = FI
| Year        = 2002
| Title       = Cancer chemopreventive and tumoricidal properties of saffron (''Crocus sativus L.'')
| Journal     = Experimental Biology and Medicine
| Volume      = 227
| Issue       = 1
| URL         = http://www.ebmonline.org/cgi/content/full/227/1/20
| accessdate =[[January 10]], [[2006]]
}}. PMID 11788779
* {{Harvard reference
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| Surname2    = Papageorgiou
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| Given3      = Z
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| Title       = Radical scavenging activity of ''Crocus sativus L.'' extract and its bioactive constituents
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}}. PMID 16317646
* {{Harvard reference
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| Year        = 1964
| Title       = The pharmacological action of 藏红花 (''zà hóng huā''—''Crocus sativus L.''): effect on the uterus and/or estrous cycle
| Journal     = Yao Hsueh Hsueh Pao
| Volume      = 11
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
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| Year        = 2002
| Title       = Tasmania's Saffron Gold
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}}.
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}}.
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| Title       = Saffron
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}}.
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}}.
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}}.
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}}.
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}}.
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| Given1      = AW
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}}.
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}}.
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}}.
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}}.
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| Given1      = G
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| Title       = Saffron (Crocus sativus L.)
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| accessdate = [[January 10]], [[2006]]
}}.
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| Surname1    = Lak
| Given1      = D
| Year        = 1998
| Title       = Kashmiris Pin Hopes on Saffron
| Journal     = BBC News
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}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Surname1    = Lak
| Given1      = D
| Year        = 1998b
| Title       = Gathering Kashmir's Saffron
| Journal     = BBC News
| URL         = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/213043.stm
| accessdate = [[January 10]], [[2006]]
}}.
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| Surname1    = Leffingwell
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| accessdate = [[January 10]], [[2006]]
}}.
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| Given1      = K
| Year        = 2003
| Title       = What the Irish Wore: A Few Arguments on the Subject of Saffron
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| URL         = http://www.reconstructinghistory.com/irish/saffron.html
| accessdate = [[January 10]], [[2006]]
}}.
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| Surname1    = McGee
| Given1      = H
| Year        = 2004
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| URL         = https://books.google.com/books?id=iX05JaZXRz0C
| accessdate = [[January 10]], [[2006]]
}}.
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}}. PMID 2025883
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| Surname1    = Park
| Given1      = JB
| Year        = 2005
| Title       = Saffron
| Journal     = USDA Phytochemical Database
| URL         = http://www.pl.barc.usda.gov/usda_supplement/supplement_detail_b.cfm?chemical_id=140
| accessdate = [[January 10]], [[2006]]
}}.
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}}.
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| Given1      = SR
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| Publisher   = Time Life Education
| isbn=978-0-8094-0069-0
}}
* {{Harvard reference
| Author      = Shen-Nong Limited
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| Year        = 2005
| Title       = Qin Dynasty 221–207&nbsp;B.C.
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| URL         = http://www.shen-nong.com/eng/shen-nong/history/qinhan/qinhan.htm
| accessdate = [[April 1]], [[2006]]
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Author      = Tarvand Saffron
| Surname1    = Tarvand
| Year        = 2005
| Title       = What is Saffron?
| Journal     = Tarvand Saffron Company
| URL         = http://www.tarvandsaffron.com/saffron.htm
| accessdate = [[January 10]], [[2006]]
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Author      = Tarvand Saffron
| Surname1    = Tarvand
| Year        = 2005b
| Title       = Grading and Classification
| Journal     = Tarvand Saffron Company
| URL         = http://www.tarvandsaffron.com/classification.htm
| accessdate = [[January 10]], [[2006]]
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
| Last1       = Willard
| Given1      = P
| Year        = 2001
| Title       = Secrets of Saffron: The Vagabond Life of the World's Most Seductive Spice
| Publisher   = Beacon Press
| isbn=978-0-8070-5008-8
| URL         = https://books.google.com/books?id=WsUaFT7l3QsC
| accessdate = [[January 10]], [[2006]]
}}.
* {{cite web
|author = Donovan
|url = http://www.lyricsdepot.com/donovan/mellow-yellow.html
|title = Donovan - Mellow Yellow Lyrics
|accessdate = 2007-09-28
|year = 1967
|work = Lyrics Depot
|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070713093411/http://www.lyricsdepot.com/donovan/mellow-yellow.html
|archivedate = 2007-07-13
}}
{{Refend}}

== Other websites ==
{{Commons|Saffron}}
* [http://sun.ars-grin.gov:8080/npgspub/xsql/duke/plantdisp.xsql?taxon=318 ''Crocus sativus'' List of Chemicals (Dr. Duke's)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041110054340/http://sun.ars-grin.gov:8080/npgspub/xsql/duke/plantdisp.xsql?taxon=318 |date=2004-11-10 }}
{{Herbs & spices}}

[[Category:Iridaceae]]
[[Category:Spices]]
[[Category:Greek food]]